Proximity sensors are sensors able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field, or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor requires a metal target.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range". Some sensors have adjustments of the nominal range or means to report a graduated detection distance.
Proximity sensors can have a high reliability and long functional life because of the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between sensor and the sensed object.
Conditioning the output of a proximity sensor is frequently difficult. Proximity sensor designers must confront linearity, hysteresis, excitation voltage instability, and voltage offset.
Types of sensors
-Capacitive
-magnetic
-inductive
-photocell (reflective)
-laser rangefinders
-sonar (typically active or passive)
-radar
-doppler effect
-passive thermal infrared
-passive optical (such as CCDs)
-reflection of ionising radiation
Proximity Sensors
Boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications.
Boilers can be classified into the following configurations:
"Pot boiler" or "Haycock boiler": a primitive "kettle" where a fire heats a partially-filled water container from below. 18th Century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam, often hardly above that of the atmosphere. These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.
Fire-tube boiler. Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam (steam space). The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface just below boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of a fire-tube which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which can be further increased by making the gases reverse direction through a second parallel tube or a bundle of multiple tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler); alternatively the gases may be taken along the sides and then beneath the boiler through flues (3-pass boiler). In the case of a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel extends from the firebox and the hot gases pass through a bundle of fire tubes inside the barrel which greatly increase the heating surface compared to a single tube and further improve heat transfer. Fire-tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam production, but high steam storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are readily adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety.
Water-tube boiler. 
Diagram of a water-tube boiler.In this type,the water tubes are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations: often the water tubes connect large drums, the lower ones containing water and the upper ones, steam; in other cases, such as a monotube boiler, water is circulated by a pump through a succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above. Water tube boilers can be be designed to exploit any heat source including nuclear fission and are generally preferred in high pressure applications since the high pressure water/steam is contained within narrow pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been combined in the following manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water tubes, the gases then pass through a conventional firetube boiler. Water-tube fireboxes were were installed in many Hungarian locomotives, but have met with little success in other countries.
In a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" the water is contained inside cast iron sections. These sections are assembled on site to create the finished boiler.
Superheated steam boilers
Most boilers heat water until it boils, and then the steam is used at saturation temperature (i.e., saturated steam). Superheated steam boilers boil the water and then further heat the steam in a superheater. This provides steam at much higher temperature, and can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the steam plant due to the fact that the higher steam temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust temperature. However, there are advantages to superheated steam. For example, useful heat can be extracted from the steam without causing condensation, which could damage piping and turbine blades.
Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if there is a leak in the steam piping, steam at such high pressure/temperature can cause serious, instantaneous harm to anyone entering its flow. Since the escaping steam will initially be completely superheated vapor, it is not easy to see the leak, although the intense heat and sound from such a leak clearly indicates its presence.
The superheater works like coils on an air conditioning unit, however to a different end. The steam piping (with steam flowing through it) is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. This area typically is between 1300-1600 degrees Celsius (2500-3000 degrees Fahrenheit). Some superheaters are radiant type (absorb heat by radiation), others are convection type (absorb heat via a fluid i.e. gas) and some are a combination of the two. So whether by convection or radiation the extreme heat in the boiler furnace/flue gas path will also heat the superheater steam piping and the steam within as well. It is important to note that while the temperature of the steam in the superheater is raised, the pressure of the steam is not: the turbine or moving pistons offer a "continuously expanding space" and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler.[3]The process of superheating steam is most importantly designed to remove all moisture content from the steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and/or associated piping.
Boiler Accessories
1.Boiler fittings
Safety valve: used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler
Water level indicators: to show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, a water gauge or water column is provided
Bottom blowdown valves
Surface blowdown line
Circulating pump
Feedwater check valve or clack valve: a nonreturn stop valve in the feedwater line
Steam accessories
Main steam stop valve
Steam traps
Main steam stop/Check valve used on multiple boiler installation
Combustion accessories
Fuel oil system
Gas system
Coal system
Automatic combustion systems
Other essential items
Pressure gauges
Feed pumps
Fusible plug
Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment
Name plate
Registration plate
Steam
In physical chemistry, and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. It is a pure, completely invisible gas (for mist see below). At standard atmospheric pressure, pure steam (unmixed with air, but in equilibrium with liquid water) occupies about 1,600 times the volume of liquid water. In the atmosphere, the partial pressure of water is much lower than 1 atm, therefore gaseous water can exist at temperatures much lower than 100 C (see water vapor and humidity).
In common speech, steam most often refers to the white mist that condenses above boiling water as the hot vapor ("steam" in the first sense) mixes with the cooler air. This mist is made of tiny droplets of liquid water, not gaseous water, so it is no longer technically steam. In the spout of a steaming kettle, the spot where there is no condensed water vapor, where there appears to be nothing there, is steam.
Switch
A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect a circuit at will. Switches cover a wide range of types such as limit, pressure, temperature and else, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines.
In applications where multiple switching options are required (e.g., a telephone service), mechanical switches have long been replaced by electronic switching devices which can be automated and intelligently controlled.
The prototypical model is perhaps a mechanical device (for example a railroad switch) which can be disconnected from one course and connected to another.
The switch is referred to as a "gate" when abstracted to mathematical form. In the philosophy of logic, operational arguments are represented as logic gates. The use of electronic gates to function as a system of logical gates is the fundamental basis for the computer—i.e. a computer is a system of electronic switches which function as logical gates.
Transmitter
A transmitter is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other telecommunications. In other applications signals can also be transmitted using an analog 0/4-20 mA current loop signal, analog 0-5Vdc/1-5Vdc/0-10Vdc voltage signal.
Flow
In mathematics, a flow formalizes, in mathematical terms, the general idea of "a variable that depends on time" that occurs very frequently in engineering, physics and the study of ordinary differential equations. Informally, if x(t) is some coordinate of some system that behaves continuously as a function of t, then x(t) is a flow. More formally, a flow is the group action of a one-parameter group on a set.
The idea of a vector flow, that is, the flow determined by a vector field, occurs in the areas of differential topology, Riemannian geometry and Lie groups. Specific examples of vector flows include the geodesic flow, the Hamiltonian flow, the Ricci flow, the mean curvature flow, and the Anosov flow.
